Cenozoic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cenozoic - Essay Example Solar radiation change was one of the prime causes of this glaciation during the Cenozoic Period. The later part of this glaciation took place in the high altitudes. Some of the main landforms on this planet were created during this particular period. Among them the mentionable ones are: Tibetan Plateau, Andes and the Himalayas. (Menzies 47) The Mesozoic Extinction survivors continued to live during the Cenozoic Period. This was the time when modern birds appeared for the first time during of their evolutionary journey. Savanna grasslands were seen in many parts of the world. Most of the vertebrates lived in the sea. However, there were insect eaters and herbivores in the lands. A complete extinction of the dinosaurs took place on the course of Cenozoic Period. The Scablands was the main creation in the state of Washington by the flood from Lake Missoula in the Cenozoic Period. The floodwater went to Pacific Ocean from Lake Missoula during this age. According to the records, the rate of flow of this water was 60 times more than the regular flow of Amazon water. The Eastern Washington was entirely flooded by the water which rushed throughout the land at a speed of about 50 miles per hour. Today, the 'Scablands' is the main evidence of this phase in the state of Washington. Cenozoic Period is considered as the recent most period in the world. Therefore surprises with evidences of this era are still found on our planet. One such incident took place in Denmark when a fossil of Cenozoic parrot was discovered there. The wingspan of this parrot is said to be about 20 feet. Northwestern Jutland is the place where the fossil has been discovered. According to the scientists, the fossil belongs to a time period, which is almost 55 million years from now. They have also said that this is one of the oldest parrot species that have been discovered so far. The genus of this parrot, according to the researchers, is known to be Mopsitta. However, the men who discovered it have named it "Danish Blue". (United Press International 2008) References 1. Fossils. University of Waikato, 2008, retrieved from: http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/FossilCenozoic.shtml on November 17, 2008 2. Age of Mammals: Cenozoic. Te Era, 2005, retrieved from: http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/Geology/Fossils/4/en on November 17, 2008 3. Menzies, John. Modern and Past Glacial Environments: Revised Student Edition. Butterworth-Heinemann. 2002. 4. "Cenozoic Fossil Parrot Found in Denmark". United Press Inter

Midieval Church Essay Example for Free

Midieval Church Essay The schism of 1378-1415 involved a division in the church due to existence of two popes. The italians elected a pope as St. Urban VI to succeed St. Peter. The French cardinals at the same time ailed to agree with the italians and elected their own pope called Clement VII. One of the issues leading to the churchs division was the fact that, the christedom couldnt agree on which pope to accept. The second issue was the fact that the two popes were in two different places, ssince St. Urban remained in Rome while Clement VII withdrew to Avignon according to Nelson (1999). In addition, Nelson also argues that there was growing corruption in both papacies,expansion of heresy and the continuation of a cchurch without real leadership or discipline. b. How the schism served to undermine the authority of the popes The papal authority was undermined since financial decisions grew worse during avignon papacy, as there were two papal capitals as well as two administrations. Secular leaders also supported either one pope or the other causing lack of unified support to a single papacy. Furthermore, according to Nelson (1999), theological situation became difficult as the two papal organizations condemned the other. c. New Religious ideas that emerged A number of new religious ideas emerged as a result of the great Schism of 1378-1415. Such religious ideas were as an attempt to resolve the issue of dual papacy and try to regain a single papacy to the church. Some of these religious ideas according to Nelson (1999) included the following: theological faculty of the university of Paris was asked to find a resolve to the problem, the popes were also asked to abdicste for the good of christedom, influential writers decided that monarchy was superior to the church. In addition, Priestly powers were placed in the hands of individuals which later formed the foundation for the refformation of the protestant churches. Furthermore, intellectuals and reformists decided that the churchs sovereighnity rested on its members (Nelson, 1999). This reformists supported their ideas by arguing on the basis of: the scripture according to paul and the early church, History acoording to Constantin and the council of Nicaea among others. d. How the need of the Church to re-establish authority manifested itself in the Fifteenth century. Th e church had a need to re-establish its authority was manifested in the fifteenth century in the following ways; The church formed the council of Pisa according to Nelson (1999) in an attempt to find a solution. This council cardinals decided to depose both pontifs and elected a third in 1408. All the cardinals were excommunicated by the two popes,making matters even worse by creating a third pope. By 14 15 the issues involving the three popes such as increased corruption and heresy led to the Holy Roman Emperor throwing his support behind concilliarists and arranged for another council meeting (Nelson,1999). These attempts were manifested by the church as a way of trying to resolve the issues. In this council,also reffered to as the council of constance, the three â€Å"phantom popes† were deposed in favour of a new pope by the name Martin V. This new pontiff was based at Rome and had a greater responsibility of re-establishing the position of the pope as Gods representative on earth (Nelson, 1999). Works Cited Nelson, L. H. (1999). Lectures of a midieval survey. The Great Schism. Retrieved from http://www. the- orb. net/textbooks/nelson/great_schism. html . On June 6 2010.

The Right Key :: Free Essays Online

The Right Key Today many common, everyday functions are governed by punching the right keys. Whether you are "surfing" the World Wide Web or making a long-distance phone call, you essentially press some type of key to manipulate some form of technology. This ability to manipulate technology can be considered a "literacy": a mastery of the specific skills and knowledge required to use technology to a person's advantage. Because of their widespread use in everyday life, a literacy of different forms of technology is a necessity for people today. The ability to use some form of technology to your own advantage is to be technologically literate. Technology encompasses everything from computers, the World Wide Web, and e-mail to telephones, cash machines, and library cataloguing resources. This definition implies just a working knowledge and familiarity with the technology in the world today and not a complete, in depth knowledge. A knowledge is mandatory for all because technology is constantly surrounding people today. Computers and related objects are now used by not only scientists and engineers but also students and parents. A knowledge of how to search the World Wide Web can be useful when a student is looking for references for a report. Checking a bank account balance over the phone can be a useful skill for a parent with little time. Both skills however require a literacy of computer, telephone, and banking technology. In my own experience, a technological literacy is essential in my life: there is not a day where I do not use some form of technology. Not only do I use a long distance code when calling home but I also acquire money to pay my phone bill from a cash machine. I frequently e-mail friends at other colleges and have an electronic meal plan on my college ID card. When writing papers I do research with the on-line library catalog and actually write my paper on my computer. If I did not know how to use these forms of technology I would certainly not be able to pass my english class. Thus for people who are illiterate technologically their lives become more complex and at times difficult in a world which is very dependent on technology. If you urgently need money at midnight, and do not know how to use a cash machine, can you wait till the bank opens in the morning? A person can only search for references on a computer and save themselves large amounts of time if they know how to use a computer.

Private Sector Approaches Essay

Since the advent of new public management reforms, private sector managerial approaches are fast gaining attention in various public sectors. This is due to the belief that on-going global economic constraints and fiscal crises are demanding for more organisational effectiveness with minimal cost, and private sector practices are believed to be more efficient than its public sector counterpart. It is within this context that human resource management practices are being transferred into the public sector for better performance. However, several literatures have debated the numerous differences between the public and private sector and often concluded that effectiveness of privately transferred human resource practices into the public sector are likely to be strained (Rainey et. al., 1976). One argument is that public sector goals as opposed to its private counterpart, are unclear and intangible and therefore, outcome becomes difficult to measure towards performance. Moreover it is also argued that public sector workers are inherently motivated and as such cannot be monetarily motivated towards performance. Also, managers in the public sectors are often argued to have limited autonomy posed by politicians leading to a strain on the performance process. And finally, the constant financial deficit in the public sector has also been argued to limit its performance and reward systems. The case of the NHS as a public sector in the UK will be used to answer the above question. It will first start with a brief description of the NHS, and then provide an overview of what human resource management means and what its practices are. The effects of these practices (performance management, appraisals, and rewards) would then be reviewed in specific NHS examples in relation to the contrasting public environmental differences. Overall, due to the overwhelming literature demonstrating the ineffectiveness of HRM practices in the NHS or rather the inability of HRM and supporting studies empirically demonstrating the link between HRM practices and performance, this essay holds the opinion that the private sector practices of HRM should not be directly transferred into the public sector or at least should be cautiously transferred in its adaptation into the public sector. THE NHS The UK NHS was created for a comprehensive (quality), universal (equity) and free health delivery at its point of use. The search for effective delivery of services in the UK NHS prompted the NHS marketisation via the 1990 NHS and community care act. Markets divided the purchasing power from the providing power of health services thereby making Trusts (self-governing hospital) accountable for their performances. Perhaps, this division occurred because the effective management of human resources out of many other organisational assets was widely viewed as a better tool to address financial crises via organisational performance improvement (Huselid, 1995). HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Due to the rapid rise of considerable interest in Human resource management over the last decade, there has been varying definition ascribed to its definition. This essay agrees with the Harvard definition in which Human resource management is viewed to encompass all managerial decisions that influences the relationship between the human resources of an organisation (it’s employees) and the organisation itself (Beer et. al., 1985, p. 1). Though, its practices have been grouped into various models, it is beyond the scope of this essay to discuss them. However, the general concept of its practices can be understood as the use of various strategies which includes amongst many others, performance management, appraisals and reward to effectively manage employee attitudes towards the organisation’s goal and performance (Armstrong, 2002, p. 3). PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT Performance management and appraisal as described by Bratton and Gold (2007, p. 274) is a process used to assess a team or individual’s abilities towards performance development and improvement. This process involves setting a goal towards an outcome, monitoring and evaluating via performance indicators, and rewards as well as penalties as the case may be. However, in the public sector, arguments have ensued that performance management often contradicts the blue print of public services or is rather strategically used by politicians to assert some form of control over the sectors and not to perform its intended purpose. Performance indicators albeit is fast becoming popular both in the public and private sectors, has a measurability often argued to be complex in the public sector as opposed to the private sector where only monetary values and profits are measured. Even though, the ultimate goal of this HR tool is to drive performance either in the private or public sector, the role of targets in the public sector is often debated as many studies have demonstrated their obscurity by questioning whether ratings or indicators can actually measure performance accurately. However, over the last decades, some studies have agreed that HRM tools have to a certain extent a drive on organisational performance both in the public and private sectors (Carter and Robinson, 2000, Boxall, 2003). In the NHS, the labour government has initiated performance management via the NHS STAR RATING as a tool to drive performance and accountability. A balanced score card which consist of both financial and non-financial measures of HRM measures is used as a multidimensional goal and target in assessing hospital performances. That is, the NHS star rating evaluates hospital performance across dimensions like patient satisfaction, clinical output, waiting times and deliver ing capacity of hospitals (Healthcare Commission , 2004). Hospitals are ascribed ratings of zero, one, two or three stars based on their performances in the score calculation. As a result, higher star rating hospitals acquire greater autonomy whilst managers in lower star rating hospitals are been threatened of their dismissal (Givan, 2005). Some researchers have tried to demonstrate its efficacy, however, other researchers have demonstrated that the associated indicators, targets, star ratings, rewards and punishment are unfair and unreal in the public sector and consequently destroy the blue print of NHS which is fairness, equity, quality and universality. Givan (2005, p. 636) argues that the supposed intention of the NHS star ratings to improve performance and to increase public awareness to quality of delivered health services is only rhetorical. She argues that, in practice, HR performance indicators have not been generated from fair, accurate and transparent data, and as such; the indicators have not fulfilled their primary goals as m any HR directors have expressed their lack of confidence in the quality of data used towards the ratings. She further notes that the public has used the rating as an opportunity to criticise hospitals instead of understanding and appropriately accessing the facilities. The ratings therefore affected how patients patronize hospitals. It was noticed that more patients patronize the highly rated hospitals whilst, the poorly rated ones were less visited with subsequent difficulty on how to restore their image. Another point, Givan (2005) highlighted, is the negative effect the media plays in the association of the public sector performance and the effect of HRM performance measurement. She explained how the NHS publication of hospital ratings has led to the demoralisation of hospital staffs resulting in poorer performance. She argues that the media took advantage of these publications by constantly publicising the negative aspect of health service delivery even though according to her the best rated hospitals are not necessarily the best performing as items measured are sometimes intangible and those not measured becomes insignificant. Bevan (2006) has also highlighted how HRM practices have led to the loss of one of NHS blue print, which is the quality of services provided to patients. He argued that, due to the fact that rewards and punishment have been perceived to be unfair as a result of unfair indicators and ratings, pretence and gaming has ensued amongst practitioners because measurement and ratings are perceived to be presently more weighted than quality of services being rendered. As a result, practitioners have devised means of being measured well as opposed to the focus on quality of service given. Indeed, waiting times have reduced just for hospital recurrences to increase. Moreover, the measurement of service quality within the NHS has been highlighted and argued to represent a form of professional distrust from the government and seen as a breach of professional idealism where a nurse or a doctor can be expected to perform maximally without supervision (Morgan & Potter, 1995). In the same vein, public service employees have been argued to have public service ethos where staffs perform maximally without strict supervision or even any form of incentives (Public Administration Select Committee, 2002). Indeed, to some extent, these researchers have believed that performance management via NHS star rating is a political gimmick for politicians to shift blames of underperformances on professionals who work in the public sector or at least to control the public sector which still perhaps, point to the fact that the public sector is different from the private sector within politicians’ control devices. This is also in line with the notion of Propper and Wilson (2003) who have noted that performance management and NPM are strategic methods used by politicians to assert control over the public and not for its intended purpose for performance improvement as in the private sector. However, although the NHS star rating and the balanced score card have met some form of resistance from professionals and hospitals in the public sector, Aidemark & Funck (2009) have been able to positively demonstrate their effect on practitioners and NHS services. In their study, they explained how competition for efficiency ensued amongst practitioners towards becoming best performing hospital and consequently seen to improve availability of health care services. The balanced score card which consist of most practices from HRM was able to help practitioners work more efficiently by helping them compare more numbers of patient parameters in one unit. For example, comparing patient need, treatment and feedback simultaneously facilitated cost efficiency and reducing waiting times. PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Moving away from the view of government and NHS institutions, and looking at performance appraisals within organisations, that is, between organisational leaders and employees, HRM practices seem also not to be applauded. The argument is that due to the measurement of intangible goals within the public sector, many of the performance appraisals conducted by senior managers or supervisors would result into a low quality appraisal. Within this context, low quality appraisals are faults generated during performance management processes, which often lead to wrong evaluation/judgments of appraisal either from employee or supervisory perspectives. This notion follows Murphy and Cleveland (1995)’s argument that public sector performance appraisal is a complex process because services are unquantifiable and would most likely result into bias and subjective judgment by the management supervisor. They noticed that these biases often result from the way a supervisor perceives and judges the outcome of the management process. Moreover, the judgment of any managerial appraisal in the public sector can be influenced by so many factors such as emotion, government policy, structures or even the appearance of the person appraised. Treadway et al. (2007, pp. 48-55) further emphasised on the progressive increase in appraisal bias and subjectivity within the public sector. The argument is that supervisors are often noticed to exhibit negative attitudes towards appraisal processes, perhaps due to the reason that they feel uncomfortable giving negative feedbacks to staffs. Therefore, in the public sector, they conduct this process more for the purpose of accountability or just for the reason to be seen conducting it. In the NHS, various studies have been carried out to determine the effectiveness of appraisal systems. It appears that many have not supported their effectiveness. In the study of personnel functions within the NHS by Guest and Peccei (1992), the effectiveness of performance appraisal was ranked 14th out of 17 personnel practices in view. Wilson and Cole (1990) have blamed the lack of sustainability of appraisal system within the NHS to the highly and complex politicized nature of health care. Redman et al. (2000), in their study on the effectiveness of appraisal within an NHS hospital also concluded that the process has not been proven to be fair and effective, perhaps due to lack of time, resources and results ambiguity that makes the process difficult within the health system. REWARD The effectiveness of HRM reward systems in the public sector is another practice that is keenly contested. Bratton and Gold (2007, p. 358) define reward as, the financial and non-financial payment given to an employee by an organization for a successful work done. It is often in form of promotion, recognition, benefits or pay. This new approach of rewarding public sector employees seems more flexible as opposed to the old reward system in which rewards automatically comes after years of service or hierarchy. This new approach may be argued to motivate employees towards work performance since employees are not promoted or rewarded if they do not perform well at work. However, some researchers have viewed this approach to be unethical within the public sector since it goes against the public service ethos of equity, equality and fairness. Some also have demonstrated the paradox and tensions between the pay methods. That is, where an employee perceives the method to be dissatisfactory even though it may be fair, it may cause more harm than good. Some even argue whether public sector staffs that are often seen to be intrinsically motivated are extrinsically motivated. Extrinsic reward within this context is a pay, benefit or promotion rewarded from an equivalently rendered service whilst intrinsic reward is the satisfaction derived psychologically from doing a job without an equivalent pay. Crewson (1997), in his empirical study carried out on public employee to determine to what extent pay incentives will affect motivation to work found out that the majority of staffs were not motivated to do more than how they have often been used to perform. Some were even noticed to demonstrate a demotivation. In fact, the overall notion is that rewards have not been actually effective within the public sector, perhaps, due to the complex and unquantifiable service rendered in public sector, which are often difficult to measure as opposed to the private sector where financial outcome is the basis for performance measurement. The quality and outcome framework of the NHS is an example of an institution that provides financial incentives to its employees (clinical team). It awards points to levels of targeted achievements of care processes and indicators of clinical outcomes. Rewards are directly linked to the number of points achieved. Though Doran et al. (2008) noticed that the framework achieved some changes in employee behaviour and concluded that the process was costly. Campbell et al. (2009), also questioned the relationship between some of its performance targets and the health improvement of its population and concluded that the setting of standard for one aspect of health care have reduced health performance elsewhere. The overall notion is that even though incentives may have seemed to be beneficial, its costly nature within the NHS may not be able to justify its implementation and subsequently its sustainability may not be guaranteed. CONCLUSION The effectiveness of private practices including Human resource management practices in the public sector is still unclear; yet, these practices are continuously utilised in the public sector. Perhaps, this is due to the wide belief that private sector tools are better than its public counterpart in resolving the on-going financial and fiscal deficit. Tools used by the human resource management are performance management, appraisal and rewards. The NHS is no exception to public sectors that greatly depends on these human resource management tools presently in the UK. The NHS having its blue print in fairness, equity and quality has been widely criticised to lose its originality after the initiation of new public management and human resource management. To drive performance within the NHS, the government adopted the NHS star rating which paved the way for various studies to be carried out on its fairness and effectiveness. Many researchers as discussed above have demonstrated the process to be unfair and highly politicized especially whilst questioning the indicators and targets used during this process. Appraisals have also not been applauded by many studies as it is seen to lead to a low quality appraisal via supervisory subjectivity and bias. It has also been viewed as contradictory to public service ethos and has led to distrust between employees with subsequent underperformance of staffs. Rewards in the quality and outcome framework of the NHS have also not been perceived to be effective and where it is, it was described to be costly and lack sustainability within the public sector or at least in the NHS. Overall, this essay holds the opinion that the success in transferring private human resource management practices into the public sector is yet unclear at least in the NHS. Perhaps, this is due to the effect of public sector peculiarity such as intangible measures, lack of resources and political powers as opposed to its private counterpart. As such, practices from the private sector should not be directly transferred but cautiously or modified to the corresponding institution. Bibliography Wilson, J. & Cole, G. (1990). A healthy approach to performance appraisal. Personel Management , 46-49. Aidemark, L.-G. & Funck, E. K. (2009). Measurement and Health Care Management. Financial Accountability & Management , 25 (2), 253-276. Armstrong, M. (2002). Employee Reward, 3rd ed. London: CIPD. Bevan, G. (2006). Setting targets for health care performance: lessons from a case study of the English NHS. National Institute economic review , 197 (1), 67-79. Beer, M.; Lawrence, P.; Spector, B.; Mills, D. & Walton, R. (1985). Human resource management: a general manager’s perspective. New York: The Free Press. Boxall, P. (2003). HR strategy and competitive advantage in the service sector. Human Resource Management Journal , 13 (3), 5-20. Bratton, J. & Gold, J. (2007). Human Resource Management: Theory and Practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillian. Campbell, S. M.; Reeves, D.; Kontopantelis, E.; Sibbald, B. & Roland, M. (2009). Effects of Pay for Performance on the Quality of P rimary Care in England. The new england journal of medicine , 361, 368-378. Carter, A. & Robinson, D. (2002). Employee Returns: Linking HR Performance Indicators to Business Strategy. Report 365. Brighton: Institute for Employment Studies. Crewson, P. E. (1997). Public-Service Motivation: Building Empirical Evidence of Incidence and Effect. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory , 7 (4), 499-518. Doran, T.; Kontopantelis, E.; Fullwood, C. & David Reeves. (2008). Effect of financial incentives on inequalities in the delivery of primary clinical care in England: analysis of clinical activity indicators for the quality and outcomes framework. The Lancet , 372 (9640), 728-736. Guest, D. E. & Peccei, R. (1992). The Effectiveness of Personnel Management in the NHS. London: NHS Personnel Development Division. Givan, R. K. (2005). Seeing stars: human resources performance indicators in the National Health Service. Personel Review , 34 (6), 634-647. Huselid, M. (1995). The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity, and corporate finan cial performance. Academy of Management Journal , 38 (3), 635-672. Healthcare Commission . (2004). NHS performance ratings 2003/2004. Commission for Healthcare Audit and Inspection. London: The Healthcare Commission. Murphy, K. R. & Cleveland, J. (1995). Understanding performance appraisal: Social, organizational, and goal-based perspectives. California: Sage. Morgan, P. & Potter, C. (1995). Professional Cultures and Paradigms in Quality Health Care. In I. &. Kirkpatrick, The Politics of Quality in the Public Sector. London: Routledge. Public Administration Select Committee. (2002). The Public Service Ethos: Seventh Report of Session 2001-02 Vol.1. House of Commons. London: HMSO. Propper, C. & Wilson, D. (2003). The Use and Usefulness of Performance Measures in the Public Sector. Oxford Review of Economic Policy , 19 (2), 250-267. Rainey, H.; Levine, C. & Backoff. (1976). Comparing Public and Private organisations. Public Administration Review , 36, 233-244. Redman, T.; Thompson, D. ; Snape E. & Ka-Ching Yan, F. (2000). Performance appraisal in a NHS hospital. Human Resource Management Journal , 10 (1), 48-62. Treadway, D.C., Adams, G.L., Duke, A.B., Ferris, G.R., & Thatcher, J.B. (2007). The moderating role of subordinate political skill on supervisors’ impressions of subordinate ingratiation and ratings of subordinate interpersonal facilitation. Journal of Applied Psychology , 92 (3), 848-855.

Charlie’s Wedding, A Play in One Act Essay

Gertie, a black woman, dressed in elegant black satin, stands at the window, her back to the audience. She may be polishing the glass or she may be eves-dropping on the two fashionably dressed white ladies, Mona and Sheila, who sit on a divan directly behind her, facing the audience. Mona: What on earth did he say then, Sheila? Sheila, (smiling coyly): He said he wants to marry me, of course, silly. Mona: But he can’t do that†¦can he? I mean†¦(a pause) Well†¦ you know what I mean. Men like him†¦ Sheila: That’s just the point†¦ men like him†¦they can do whatever they want. Mona: Well, I’m just saying†¦they don’t buy a cow when the milk is so cheap. Sheila: Well, he might buy the cow that gives milk as good as this one does. Mona feigns embarrassment, her hands going to her face as she buries her head in her hands for a moment. Gertie moves to the right and looks at pictures in frames on the mantle of the fireplace, now obviously listening, cocking her head to hear better. Mona: Girl, you have no shame. (Giggles) But you are about to graduate from here anyway. You don’t have to marry, you don’t have to do anything but pack your bags and run, girl. Sheila: But I might just want to get married. Isn’t it what every young lady is reared to do? Aren’t we born and bred to be the wives and ornaments of powerful men? Isn’t it my duty as a woman? Isn’t it my calling? My raison d’etre? (Misprounounces the words) Mona: If it’s what you want, then by all means you should do it. Be my guest. I will dance at your wedding with a cow-bell on. But it’s not going to be to that two-timing Charlie O’Brian, I surely do hope, child. Gertie moves until she is standing at the side of Sheila, picks up a small bowl from the end table and is wiping it slowly. Sheila: Well how can you be so presumptuous? I mean, what do you know about it anyway? And why do you say he is a two-timer? If you know some gossip that I don’t then you are bound by your duty as a woman to tell me. Gertie puts down the bowl and speaks: Yes, Miss Mona, do tell all you know about this two-timing Charlie O’Brian. Do you have some reason to suspect he may not be as morally upright and Christianified as he purports to be? Is he, perhaps†¦a†¦man of low degree? The three women laugh and Gertie takes a seat in the chair, in profile to the audience, putting her feet up on a ottoman and fanning herself from her labor. Gertie: Let me tell you about men†¦ all men. They are idiots†¦all idiots, and Charlie O’Brian is their Lizard King. They are all just big boys. They never grow up and they never think with the head they have on their shoulders. I know you can guess which head it is that they do think with, without me having to say. But they control the money and politics and they control the laws and we have to work around them to get what we want. Now, as for this Charlie O’Brian, he has proposed to half the women in this sorority and that is a natural fact. He got big drunk last Christmas and asked me to run off with him. I told him that for twenty dollars I would run into the pantry with him for a spell, but that is all of the running I meant to do. Child, no man is ever faithful to no woman and I will tell you how you can be sure of what a man is up to. If you think he is faithful to you then he is most likely cheating on you. But if you think he is cheating on you, then he is positively cheating on you. And you can take that to the bank, honey. Sheila: We all know how men are. But Charlie is different. He loves me. He really does Gertie: Sugar, last year he loved Abbie, and the year before that he loved Sara Lynn. He loves a lot of ladies. And lots of ladies love him. But ain’t none of them ever got a brand on his li’l narrow behind. Mona laughs: Gertie, you are such a romantic soul. But you are wrong about Charlie boy. He loves a lot of women but he don’t love any of them. We all know about commercial affection. That’s why there are sporting houses and sporting ladies who can be found in them, and men know all them and they go sow their wild oats and then pray for a crop failure. Charlie O’Brian haunts sporting houses. He is a sporting man. He is going to leave you crying. Sheila looks at Mona, irritated: Well Miss Know It All, that just proves my point, because men don’t marry sporting ladies do they? They marry good girls, from good families. They marry ladies of wit, breeding and sagacity. They go sow those wild oats but then when nesting time comes around they look for a woman who is better than any sporting lady. They look for someone who can entertain for them, can give them sons and can keep their home for them. I don’t care where my man gets his kicks so long as he kicks his boots off at home with me. I am a pragmatic person. I understand the ways of the world. I did not just fall of no turnip truck, and believe it or not, I did not come to this town riding two to the mule. Mona looks at Gertie who shrugs her shoulders, then speaks: Honey, you are missing one very important point. You are too good for Charlie O’Brian. He is beneath you and that’s a fact. You will never be happy with someone like him. He is common as dirt. He is in the trades. He will keep you filled up with a belly-full of children and leave you barefoot and pregnant. He is not good enough for you. Get him out of your pretty little empty head. Now, lets discuss this party, we have to finish these plans. We are really getting short of time now. Christmas will be here before you know it and we can’t wait til the very last minute. Gertie stands and picks up her dust cloth and moves behind the divan, facing the audience, looking down at the other two girls: This party is going to be such a bore. Boy girl, boy girl, boy girl†¦so boring. We should invite some transvestites and some of them folk what you call hermaphrodites of both sexes and let everyone try to guess who is who and who has what and just see how that messes up the seating arrangements. (Laughs) Mona: That would make it a party to remember. Do you know any real transvestites? Oh, I’m sure you do. You are so worldly, Gertie. (Mona and Sheila laugh) Sheila: Well, I’m more interested in making wedding plans than Christmas party plans. I want the wedding to be here. Right in this room. We’ve all have had so much fun here, and there are so many good memories associated with this room. Yes, I’ve made my mind up. I want to come down those stairs (points off stage, left) and I want all my friends to be here and see me on the happiest day of my life. Gertie: Girl, you are serious? You said yes to Charlie O’Brian? Sheila nods and speaks: I told him last night. He said he wants to marry me on New Year’s Eve. I told him I was going to go away for the holidays but he asked me to stay in town. It’s official. I told him I will marry him on New Year’s Eve, just like he wants me to. Mona: Sheila, please, listen to me. Charlie O’Brian is no good. I would never say a word to harm you but I can’t sit here and watch you just dash headlong off of no cliff. He is not the man you think he is. He is not a good person. He is a liar and a fake and he will end up dead or in prison and he will drag you down with him. You are too fine a person to make such a terrible match. You just can’t let yourself sink to his level. Sheila: Mona, please. Why are you doing this? What have I ever done to you that you would disrespect me so much? Charlie is the only man who has ever treated me with any of the common courtesies. He doesn’t paw me, or try to kiss me when we are alone. He behaves like the perfect gentleman. Gertie puts down her dust cloth and moves back to her chair, She pulls it closer to the divan and sits down, leaning forward conspiratorially: Sheila, child, I may be out of place to say this, but Mona is right. That Charlie O’Brian is bad news. Don’t you know he got into a fight with a man over a card game? In a public place? He is one step from disaster all the time. He is a common ruffian when he is drunk and he is drunk most all of the times. He can’t be trusted any further than you could toss a bull by the tail. He is a daddy’s boy and won’t ever be nothing that his daddy don’t let him be. Hasn’t your schooling here taught you anything? It seems at least you would have learned to read men. Child, I’m saying this for your own good, Mona is right, you can’t marry that Charlie fellow. He is not good enough for you. I beg of you to reconsider your answer and tell that Mister O’Brian that you have reconsidered and you find that you cannot become his wife. Sheila buries her face in her hands sobbing Mona leans forward to comfort her, but Gertie gestures for her to stop Gertie: Child, I am sorry that I have made you feel bad but the simple fact is that you have to recognize that what Mona and I are telling you is for your own good and it is the gospel truth. Sheila stands: I don’t want to hear anymore of this. I don’t know how you figure that Charlie is not good enough for me. He has a good position in his father’s business and he can take care of me. I know that it’s not considered proper but he and I have discussed finances. I have agreed to put my trust money into a business proposal which he has become interested in. He is sure it will put us on easy street and I believe in him and I believe in his ideas. His father will finance half of it and I am going to put in the balance. But most importantly, ladies, he loves me passionately. We have spoken of our future together and we have decided to marry quickly without any long engagements. You ladies know I was orphaned and this sorority is what I reckon as my family. It’s the only family I have ever really had. You are all as close to me as blood sisters could be and I do appreciate you trying to look out for my best interest. But you just don’t know Charlie O’Brian like I know him. He wants me for the rest of his life and I want him the same. Sheila walks slowly out of the room, stage left: Gertie, to Mona, in a soft voice: What are we to do? Mona: What can we do? Gertie: Has she lost her mind or is she just yanking our chain? I swear I can’t get a fix on what she is thinking. But I’m prone to think she is believes this. That he is going to marry her. My god, this will destroy her if that is the case. Can we get Miss Edith to ban him? Keep him out of here? Mona: Miss Edith? Ban a paying customer? Are you a crack ho? Gimme a taste of what you is using. I don’t want no whole one†¦ just gimme a li’l taste, girl. Gertie laughs, then speaks: If he came in here and beat her up†¦if he broke her ribs, Miss Edith would ban him. Why let him break her heart? Mona: How long has she been here? Seriously? How can she believe anything a john tells her? She has served her indentures and is going to leave inside of six months with a nice piece of change. Hasn’t she learned anything? This has to be some kind of elaborate joke, don’t you think? You know how she has always been. How she calls us her sisters†¦how she call the house a sorority. She isn’t serious, and she isn’t putting on airs. It is just her way of coping with being a prostitute. But, lordy, what if she is smitten? What if she has fallen for the no good scalawag? Gertie: You want to know what Charlie O’Brian has in mind for a business deal? He wants to buy this house. Do you think he plans to get some funds out of her by saying he will marry her? Maybe we should tell Miss Edith all about this plan. Mona: No, I just had an inspiration. Why don’t we go the other way? Why not talk it up. Go overboard, all out in favor of it? Make it a matter of public record? Announce the engagement. Announce a big wedding right here on Christmas Eve? Let young Mister O’Brian put up or shut up? We just pretend we accept it as a done deal. We just go on with the wedding plans. Gertie giggles at the thought, then speaks: No! Wait†¦We are goin’ to be all decorated up for Christmas. We get Miss Edith to announce the imminent wedding when Charlie gets a few under his belt this coming Saturday night? We tell Miss Edith its just all a big joke on Charlie. We get the piano player to play Here Comes the Bride and let Sheila come down them stairs right there in a white gown. Charlie is all hat and no cattle but we can fix that. I know how. It looks like a win-win situation for us. He either backs out, and looks like a liar and a fool, or he goes ahead and marries a lady of the evening, which will cause his daddy to cut his manhood off so he can’t reproduce. (laughs) It would be so appropriate to have him look like a four-flusher or a fool in front of all his peers. We can get Parson Maybury to hang around just in case we need a few appropriate words†¦in case Charlie is drunk enough to do it. Oh my god, what I wouldn’t give to see him wake up the next morning married to Sheila. Mona: Miss Edith would never let us jack with a customer like that. Gertie: Not if she thinks we’re serious. But so long as we put it to her as an elaborate joke done in good honest fun†¦ It will be perfect for the holidays. We can convince her its entertainment and will bring in some new customers just to watch Charlie O’Brian marry a working girl. Arnie Harris works at City Hall. He will get me a blank marriage license if I ask him sweetly. We have good ol’ Harry on the piano. Todd Baker can take the wedding photos. Most of the men in this town dislike the O’Brians and would enjoy a good laugh at Charlie’s expense. You know, probably fifty per cent of the men in this town have gone up those stairs right there at some time in their life. (points) Then there is forty per cent of the men in this town who wish they could. Which leaves us with about ten percent who would like to take care of the 40 per cent who can’t make it, but that’s another story, but about ninety-five per cent of them do not like the O’Brians. Mona: Oh my god, girl, that would be the funniest thing I ever saw, to have spoilt, rich, pampered goodie two-shoes Charlie O’Brian married in the parlour of the finest House in all of New Orleans. And see the pictures spread all over the Sunday Times- Picayune†¦in the society section. We can make up a guest list. Include the governor’s name. Oh my god†¦girl, you’re a genius. (laughs). We don’t have to say they came, just say they was invited. Every man in town who is not an actual customer is fair game. Miss Edith would have our heads for revealing the names of actual customers but there ain’t no social taboo against revealing names of customers of the competition is there? Gertie: No, I would reckon they are fair game. Mona: We got to let Cloonie in on this. He can get some of the guys to go along with this. Bring in some tuxedos for the wedding party, for the pictures. Get a pen and paper, Gertie, we got to make a list of everything we need. I want it to be just perfect for Mister Charlie O’Brian’s wedding. What do you call them little fancy flowers men wear in their button hole? Well, we even want to get some of them. Oh yes, we have to do this up right. Charlie’s momma may want to send these pictures out to all the relatives who couldn’t actually make it to her son’s social event of the season, a whore-house wedding. Gertis: I’ll check to make sure, but Beaulah usually keeps some of that laudanum on hand for her croupe. If she is out she can get Doc Baines to send over a fresh bottle. Charlie will go to ordering his fancy little stemware glasses full of brandy and benedictine†¦he thinks that’s so posh†¦then he slips into that god-awful fake English accent and goes to calling himself Mister B and B. That sweet mess has such an odor about it that I could pour in a cup of creosote and he wouldn’t ever come close to tasting the difference. He sure won’t notice no dab of laudanum poured in. After a couple of shots of that stuff he will be cocked and primed. He will do what ever he is told to do, and smile while he is doing it. Mona: You know, there aren’t many of our customers who are disliked enough for us to pull this off on them. But Charlie O’Brian is pretty much universally thought to be a piece of human detritus. Everyone thinks he is a smarmy low life. This is perfect. Gertie: well, not totally perfect. We still aren’t sure where Sheila fits into all of this. What she is really thinking. Does she believe Charlie or is she just blowing smoke up our dresses to pass a cold winter day? Mona: Well†¦what difference is it? If she wants to marry him, she is going to end up married, with a ring and a license and she legally owns half his property as well. If she doesn’t, then we tell her it’s just all one big practical joke and we laugh about it. Gertie and Mona stand, Gertie speaks: That’s the thing I miss most about being in the sporting life. I miss the weddings. This is going to be some good fun. (Both women exit the stage, loudly humming The Wedding March)

Motives in the Media essays

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Battle of Fredericksburg in the Civil War

Battle of Fredericksburg in the Civil War The Battle of Fredericksburg was was fought December 13, 1862, during the American Civil War (1861-1865) and saw Union forces suffer a bloody defeat. Having grown angry with Major General George B. McClellans unwillingness to pursue General Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia after the Battle of Antietam, President Abraham Lincoln relieved him on November 5, 1862, and replaced him with Major General Ambrose Burnside two days later. A West Point graduate, Burnside had achieved some success earlier in the war campaigning in North Carolina and leading IX Corps. A Reluctant Commander Despite this, Burnside had misgivings about his ability to lead the Army of the Potomac. He had twice declined the command citing that he was unqualified and lacked experience. Lincoln had first approached him following McClellans defeat on the Peninsula in July and made a similar offer following Major General John Popes defeat at Second Manassas in August. Asked again that fall, he only accepted when Lincoln told him that McClellan would be replaced regardless and that the alternative was Major General Joseph Hooker whom Burnside intensely disliked.      Burnsides Plan Reluctantly assuming command, Burnside was pressured to undertake offensive operations by Lincoln and Union General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck. Planning a late fall offensive, Burnside intended to move into Virginia and openly concentrate his army at Warrenton. From this position he would feint towards Culpeper Court House, Orange Court House, or Gordonsville before quickly marching southeast to Fredericksburg. Hoping to sidestep Lees army, Burnside planned to cross the Rappahannock River and advance on Richmond via the Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad. Requiring speed and guile, Burnsides plan built upon some operations that McClellan had been contemplating at the time of his removal. The final plan was submitted to Halleck on November 9. Following a lengthy debate, it was approved by Lincoln five days later though the president was disappointed that the target was Richmond and not Lees army. Additionally, he cautioned that Burnside should move quickly as it was unlikely that Lee would hesitate to move against him. Moving out on November 15, the lead elements of the Army of the Potomac reached Falmouth, VA, opposite Fredericksburg, two days later having successfully stolen a march on Lee. Armies Commanders Union - Army of the Potomac Major General Ambrose E. Burnside100,007 men Confederates - Army of Northern Virginia General Robert E. Lee72,497 men Critical Delays This success was squandered when it was discovered that the pontoons needed to bridge the river had not arrived ahead of the army due to an administrative error. Major General Edwin V. Sumner, commanding the Right Grand Division (II Corps IX Corps), pressed Burnside for permission to ford the river to scatter the few Confederate defenders in Fredericksburg and occupy Maryes Heights west of the town. Burnside refused fearing that the fall rains would cause the river to rise and that Sumner would be cut off. Responding to Burnside, Lee initially anticipated having to make a stand behind the North Anna River to the south. This plan changed when he learned how slow Burnside was moving and he instead elected to march towards Fredericksburg. As the Union forces sat in Falmouth, Lieutenant General James Longstreets entire corps arrived by November 23 and began digging on the heights. While Longstreet established a commanding position,  Lt. General Thomas Stonewall Jacksons corps was en route from the Shenandoah Valley.   Opportunities Missed On November 25, the first pontoon bridges arrived, but Burnside refused to move, missing an opportunity to crush half of Lees army before the other half arrived. By the end of the month, when the remaining bridges arrived, Jacksons corps had reached Fredericksburg and assumed a position south of Longstreet. Finally, on December 11, Union engineers began building six pontoon bridges opposite Fredericksburg. Under fire from Confederate snipers, Burnside was forced to send landing parties across the river to clear out the town. Supported by artillery on Stafford Heights, the Union troops occupied Fredericksburg and looted the town. With the bridges completed, the bulk of Union forces began crossing the river and deploying for battle on December 11 and 12. Burnsides original plan for the battle called for the main attack to be executed to the south by Major General William B. Franklins Left Grand Division (I Corps VI Corps) against Jacksons position, with a smaller, supporting action against Maryes Heights. Held in the South Beginning at 8:30 AM on December 13, the assault was led by Major General George G. Meades division, supported by those of Brigadier Generals Abner Doubleday and John Gibbon. While initially hampered by heavy fog, the Union attack gained momentum around 10:00 AM when it was able to exploit a gap in Jacksons lines. Meades attack was eventually stopped by artillery fire, and around 1:30 PM a massive Confederate counterattack forced all three Union divisions to withdraw. To the north, the first assault on Maryes Heights had commenced at 11:00 AM and was led by the division of Major General William H. French. A Bloody Failure The approach to the heights required the attacking force to cross a 400-yard open plain which was divided by a drainage ditch. To cross the ditch, Union troops were forced to file in columns over two small bridges. As in the south, the fog prevented Union artillery on Stafford Heights from providing effective fire support. Moving forward, Frenchs men were repulsed with heavy casualties. Burnside repeated the attack with the divisions of Brigadier Generals Winfield Scott Hancock and Oliver O. Howard with the same results. With the battle going poorly on Franklins front, Burnside focused his attention on Maryes Heights. Reinforced by Major General George Picketts division, Longstreets position proved impenetrable. The attack was renewed at 3:30 PM when Brigadier General Charles Griffins division was sent forward and repulsed. Half an hour later, Brigadier General Andrew Humphreys  division charged with the same result. The battle concluded when Brigadier General George W. Gettys division attempted to attack the heights from the south with no success. All told, sixteen charges were made against the stone wall atop Maryes Heights, usually in brigade strength. Witnessing the carnage Gen. Lee commented, It is well that war is so terrible, or we should grow too fond of it. Aftermath One of the most one-sided battles of the Civil War, the Battle of Fredericksburg cost the Army of the Potomac 1,284 killed, 9,600 wounded, and 1,769 captured/missing. For the Confederates, casualties were 608 killed, 4,116 wounded, and 653 captured/missing. Of these only around 200 were suffered at Maryes Heights. As the battle ended, many Union troops, living and wounded, were forced to spend the freezing night of December 13/14 on the plain before the heights, pinned down by the Confederates. On the afternoon of the 14th, Burnside asked Lee for a truce to tend to his wounded which was granted. Having removed his men from the field, Burnside withdrew the army back across the river to Stafford Heights. The following month, Burnside strove to save his reputation by attempting to move north around Lees left flank. This plan bogged down when January rains reduced the roads to mud pits which prevented the army from moving. Dubbed the Mud March, the movement was cancelled. Burnside was replaced by Hooker on January 26, 1863.

Marriott International Business Research Paper

Marriott International Business - Research Paper Example In the paper, one of the Fortune’s 100 Best Companies to Work For, 2011, Marriott International has been taken into consideration and the company’s profile including historical background along with a few of the organization behavior practices like group behaviors, communication and leadership approaches have been discussed. Company’s Profile Marriott International Inc is one of the leading lodging companies with in excess of 3400 lodging establishments operating in more than 68 countries and territories among others. Headquarter of this company is situated in Bethesda, Maryland, the USA and has approximately 1, 37,000 employees working across the cross border regions. The company has a standing committee consisting Board of Directors acting as a top management team leading from the front. The company deals with luxurious hotels, resorts and real estate’s around the world particularly located in the United States, Canada, Europe, Middle East, Africa, Carib bean areas and Asia Pacific regions among others (Marriott, 2011). It has been recognized by Fortune as one of the best companies to work for and also is one of the greener companies in America. The company was selected in this prestigious list due to certain changes made in the business policies by the leaders of Marriott International compared to the last year i.e. 2010. In addition, due to performing its corporate responsibilities towards the business values of the company’s ethical and legal standards along with its influence upon the environmental factors and towards the society as well made the platform for Marriott International to acquire the place in Fortune’s Best Companies to Work For, 2011. In lieu of this, the company’s pioneering products and services, diversity in ownership and its positive value towards its owners and franchisees also count for Marriott International to remain in Fortune’s Best Companies to Work For in 2011 (Marriott, 2011 ). Importance of Group Behavior in an Organization A group, in an organization, can be defined as two or more persons’ interaction with each other in such a way that each person gets influenced by the other. It can be defined in terms of perception, motivation and interactions of the organization. It is very much essential for an organization to form such a group in order to understand and analyze the behavior of people within the organization in order to achieve the desired goals of the business. From the managerial perspective, the work group behavior is a key approach where the managers of a particular organization co-ordinates with the individual’s behavior in order to expand its business. The importance of group behavior in an organization constitutes proper control on various policies of the organization, increases the motivation approach among the employees, increases productivity, establishes proper ways of communication and enhances decision making procedure o f an organization (Griffin, 2011). Importance of Communication in an Organization

Customer Service Profile Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Asia History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Asia History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Asia History - Essay Example Same holds true for Africans and Americans. In fact, there is little difference between Europeans and Americans. Many people in the two continents conventionally have similar way of living. Most of the tribes in African states have exactly same style of living, traditions and culture. Many even retain the same financial status. Such trends are least likely to be observed in Asia. In Asia, people generally tend to associate with one another on the basis of some similarity. Religion is largely considered as a means of association irrespective of the difference of race, ethnicity or origin. People tend to develop irremovable differences with people even in their own race on the basis of religion. Two Asians, one from India and the other from Pakistan might look exactly the same apparently, but the two are very different from each other in every day life. This is because the way of life of the two people is governed by the religions they belong to. Let’s assume that the Indian is a Hindu and the Pakistani is a Muslim. The vastness of distance between the beliefs the two of them hold can be estimated from the fact that the former worships a cow while the latter slaughters it, and both of them have religious reasons for doing so. Similar examples can be quoted while comparing Pakistanis to Chinese, Chinese to Srilankans and Iranis to Russians. Apart from religion, other fundamental causes of differences among Southeast Asian countries are political systems and differing sizes of population (Pope, n.d., p. 2). This can, hence, be stated that religion plays a fundamental role in deciding the relations between a vast majority of Asians. This is because many in-flowing religions have had influence on the already existing ones in Asia from time to time. Asia’s history is much influenced by religions. Buddhism has long been the religion of Asians. The teachings

Speech class assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Speech class assignment - Essay Example It delves deeper and in specific; this is as opposed to the general purpose of a given speech. Sproule (574) states that it enlivens the general purpose of the speech, where it covers aspects such as what the audience is being enlightened on. This situation is so, especially if the general theme of the speech aligns with informing the audience. It may also cover what the audience is being persuaded to do in the case the general purpose of the speech lies under the theme of persuasion. In listening to this speech, there are a numerous of points and emphases noted. Among them are the emphases of the fact that Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was riding only two cars behind his boss when President J. F. Kennedy was shot. There is another emphasis, which states that barely 24 hours had passed before V.P Johnson ascended to the Presidency of the Unites States of America. The phrase ‘ladies and gentlemen’ are said in an emphasizing manner, where the lecturer introduces the issues to do with the ratification of the 25th amendment that deals with the succession of a president. Finally, there is an emphasis on the point that article 25 of the Constitution was vague thereby giving room to misinterpretations and confusions. Listening to speech four without the visual element, it is almost impossible to note the areas being emphasized by the speaker. The tone is flat without any poses and variations. As such, the speaker appears to be speaking on one subject. The tonal variation, which should come with the comparison of various aspects of the speech, remains lacking. The emphasis that should be placed on the various types of artwork, specifically the impressionistic versus the 18th-century artwork. On the mention of the example of an impressionistic painting, the speaker does not change his tone. The mention of the painter is also done in a flat tone. Finally, the changes in subjects are also done without much consideration of the tonal

Terrorism and Homeland Security Essay Example for Free

Terrorism and Homeland Security Essay Left-wing extremists are highly idealistic. Their primary objective is to reform or destroy an existing system and replace it with a new and just society. Left-wing extremists possess a belief system that is often interpreted as a fanatical devotion to Marxist ideology. As a result, they use the doctrines of class warfare or national liberation as a justification for political violence. For left-wing extremists, taking up arms is a form of struggle against a despotic system, class or government. In addition, they view themselves as the messianic saviors of the poor and the oppressed. Studies of Marxist movements in the 21st century has revealed that in order to bring about their desired social change, left-wing extremists adopt a â€Å"vanguard strategy† (p. 223). This approach operates on the premise that revolutionary conditions are the results of a generalized climate of change that was developed over time. Revolutionary conditions rarely occur spontaneously – only a committed and disciplined revolutionary movement has the capacity to come up with it. The revolutionary movement (usually composed of disaffected young educated elite) creates revolutionary conditions by raising the political consciousness of the exploited class or group. In the context of leftist extremism, â€Å"political consciousness† refers to the belief that revolution is the best alternative to the corrupt status quo. As soon as the desired revolutionary conditions are attained, the revolutionary movement sees to it that these are maintained. In the process, the revolutionary movement becomes the â€Å"vanguard† of the subjugated class or group. The former â€Å"saves† them from a repressive system, as well as â€Å"protects† them from it. An example that illustrates the â€Å"vanguard strategy† is the Russian Vanguard of the Proletariat. Lenin and the Bolsheviks required the members of the Russian Communist Party to be the â€Å"vanguard of the proletariat† (p. 234). They were the â€Å"elite† who were expected to transform Russia into a Communist society by bringing about the revolution. They were to free the proletariat from the tyranny of the nobles by educating them on Marxist doctrines. Right-wing extremists, on the other hand, are very nostalgic. They affirm their superiority usually by looking back on past glories. In the process, right-wing extremists use these previous achievements as justifications for violence. For them, carnage is acceptable as long as it is used to maintain the purity of a religion, ethno-national group or an ideology. Right-wing extremists believe that they have the moral obligation to protect an ideal order that was â€Å"violated† or â€Å"destroyed† by â€Å"inferior† religious values or ethno-national interests. For them, the restoration of this ideal order is the only way to lasting peace and prosperity in society. Anyone who opposes must be eliminated through all possible means – even violence. Consequently, right-wing extremism is very prevalent in organizations that represent groups that have a distinctive identity, such as regional minorities and religious fundamentalists. Below are the common characteristics of right-wing organizations: a. Nationalism – The belief that only people of a specific nationality have the right to reside within a given country. Furthermore, these nationals likewise have the right to live in their country’s borders. b. Racism – The misconception that race is the main basis for all human traits and capabilities. c. Xenophobia – In the context of right-wing extremism, xenophobia is the fear of belief systems that deviate from the status quo. d. Antidemocracy – An aversion to the concept of pluralism in society. In order to achieve their goal homogeneity, right-wing extremists shun political activities that foster equality and democratic rule, such as popular elections. e. Strong State – Right-wing extremists advocate militarism under the guise of â€Å"protecting law and order. † For them, militarism is an effective means of eliminating â€Å"dissidents† (groups whom they deem â€Å"inferior†). References Martin, G. (2006). Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives and Issues (2nd ed. ). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Analysis of Student Geometric Thinking and Age Differences

Analysis of Student Geometric Thinking and Age Differences Students Geometric Thinking 8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction In the last 20 years, the perception of learning as internalization of knowledge is criticized and problemized in mathematics education society (Lave Wenger, 1991; Sfard, 2000; Forman Ansell, 2001). Lave and Wenger (1991) describe learning as a process of â€Å"increasing participation in communities of practices† (p.49). Sfard (2000) also emphasized the new understanding of learning as â€Å"Today, rather than speaking about â€Å"acquisition of knowledge,† many people prefer to view learning as becoming a participant in a certain discourse† (p.160). This new perspective in the understanding of learning brings different views to mathematics teaching practice. While the structure of mathematics lessons is organized in the sequence of Initiation- Response-Evaluation (IRE) in the traditional mathematics classrooms, with the reform movement, participation of the students become the centre of the mathematics classrooms (O Connor, 1993; Steele, 2001). Initiating topic or problems, starting or enhancing discussions, providing explanations are the role of the teacher in the traditional classrooms but these roles become a part of students responsibilities in the reform mathematics classrooms (Forman, 1996). Turkey also tries to organize their mathematics curriculum according to these reform movements. With the new elementary mathematics curriculum, in addition to developing mathematical concepts, the goal of mathematics education is defined as enhancing students problem solving, communication and reasoning abilities. Doing mathematics is no more defined only as remembering basic mathematical facts and rules and following procedures, it also described as solving problems, discussing the ideas and solution strategies, explaining and defending own views, and relating mathematical concepts with other mathematical concepts and disciplines (MEB, 2006). Parallel to new understanding of learning, reform movements in mathematics education, and new Turkish elementary mathematics curriculum, students roles such as developing alternative solution strategies and sharing and discussing these strategies gain great importance in mathematics education. Mathematics teachers are advised to create classroom discourse in which students will be encouraged to use different approaches for solving problems and to justify their thinking. This means that some researches and new mathematics curriculum give so much importance to encourage students to develop alternative problem solving strategies and share them with others. (MEB, 2006; Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi Empson, 1999; Reid, 1995). One of the aims of the new mathematics curriculum is that the students stated their mathematical thinking and their implications during the mathematical problem solving process (MEB, 2006). According to new curriculum, the students should have opportunity to solve the problems using different strategies and to explain their thinking related to problem solving to their friends and teacher. Moreover, the students should state their own mathematical thinking and implications during the problem solving process and they should develop problem solving strategies in mathematics classrooms (MEB, 2006). Fraivillig, Murphy and Fuson (1999) reported that creating this kind of classrooms requires that teacher has knowledge about students mathematical thinking. One of the most important studies related to childrens mathematical thinking is Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI). The aim of this study is to help the teachers organize and expand their understanding of childrens thinking and to explore how to use this knowledge to make instructional decisions such as choice of problems, questions to ask children to acquire their understanding. The study was conducted from kindergarten through 3rd grade students. At the beginning of the study, researchers tried to explore students problem solving strategies related to content domains addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The findings from this investigation is that students solve the problems by using direct modeling strategies, counting strategies derived facts strategy and invented algorithms. In order to share their findings with teachers, they conducted workshops. With these workshops, the teachers realized that the students are able to solve the problems using a variety of stra tegies. After this realization, they started to listen to their students mathematical explanations, tried to elicit those strategies by asking questions, tried to understand childrens thinking and encouraged the use of multiple strategies to solve the problems in their classrooms (Franke, Kazemi, 2001, Fennema, Carpenter, Franke, 1992). At the end of the study, the students whose teachers encourage them to solve the questions with different strategies and spend more time for discussing these solutions showed higher performance (Fennema, Carpenter, Franke, Levi, Jacobs, Empson, 1996). Similar finding is also observed the study of Hiebert and Wearne (1993). They concluded that when the students solve few problems, spend more time for each problem and explain their alternative solution strategies, they get higher performance. As indicated the new curriculum in Turkey (MEB,2006), the teacher should create a classroom in which students develop different problem solving strategies, share these with their classmates and their teacher and set a high value on different problem solving strategies during the problem solving process. Encouraging the students to solve the problems is important since while they are solving the problems, they have a chance to overview their own understanding and they take notice of their lack of understandings or misunderstandings (Chi Bassock, 1989, as cited in Webb, Nemer Ing, 2006). Moreover, Forman and Ansell (2001) stated that if the students develop their own problem solving strategies, their self confidence will be increase and they ca n build their mathematical informal knowledge. Not only mathematical thinking, but also geometrical thinking has very crucial role for developing mathematical thinking since National Council of Teachers of Mathematics in USA (2000) stated that â€Å"geometry offers an aspect of mathematical thinking that is different from, but connected to, the world of numbers† (p.97). While students are engaging in shapes, structures and transformations, they understand geometry and also mathematics since these concepts also help them improve their number skills. There are some studies which dealt with childrens thinking but a few of them examine childrens geometrical thinking especially two dimensional and three dimensional geometry. One of the most important studies related to geometrical thinking is van Hiele Theory. The theory categorizes childrens geometrical thinking in a hierarchical structure and there are five hierarchical levels (van Hiele, 1986). According to these levels, initially students recognize the shapes as a whole (Level 0), then they discover the properties of figures and recognize the relationship between the figures and their properties (level 1 and 2). Lastly the students differentiate axioms, definitions and theorems and they prove the theorems (level 3 and 4) (Fuys, Geddes, Tischler, 1988). Besides, there are some other studies which examined geometrical thinking in different point of view. For example, the study of Ng (1998) is related to students understanding in area and volume at grade 4 and 5. But, Battista and Clements (1996) and Ben-Chaim (1985) investigated students geometric thinking by describing students solution strategies and errors in 3-D cube arrays at grades 3, 4 and 5. On the other hand, Chang (1992) carried out a study to understand spatial and geometric reasoning abilities of college students. Besides of these studies, Seà §il (2000), Olkun (2001), Olkun, Toluk (2004), Ãâ€"zbellek (2003) and Okur (2006) have been conducted studies in Turkey. Generally, the studies are about students geometric problem solving strategies (Seà §il, 2000), the reason of failure in geometry and ways of solution (Okur, 2006), the misconceptions and missing understandings of the students related to the subject angles at grade 6 and 7 (Ãâ€"zbellek, 2003). In addition to t hese, studies has been done to investigate the difficulties of students related to calculating the volume of solids which are formed by the unit cubes (Olkun, 2001), number and geometry concepts and the effects of using materials on students geometric thinking (Olkun Toluk, 2004). When the studies are examined which has been done in Turkey, the number of studies related to spatial ability is limited. Spatial ability is described as â€Å"the ability to perceive the essential relationships among the elements of a given visual situation and the ability to mentally manipulate one or two elements and is logically related to learning geometry† (as cited in Moses, 1977, p.18). Some researchers claimed that it has an important role for mathematics education since spatial skills contribute an important way to the learning of mathematics (Fennema Sherman, 1978; Smith, 1964) and Anderson (2000) claimed that mathematical thinking or mathematical ability is strongly related with spatial ability. On the other hand, Moses (1977) and Battista (1990) found that geometric problem solving and achievement are positively correlated with spatial ability. So, developing students spatial ability will have benefit to improve students geometrical and also mathematical thinking and it may foster students interest in mathematics. Problem Statement Since spatial ability and geometric thinking are basis of mathematics achievement, then one of the problems for researchers may be to investigate students geometric thinking (NCTM, 2000; Anderson, 2000; Fennema Sherman, 1978; Smith, 1964). For this reason, generally this study will focus on students geometrical thinking. Particularly, it deals with how students think in three-dimensional and two-dimensional geometry, their solution strategies in order to solve three-dimensional and two-dimensional geometry problems, the difficulties which they confront with while they are solving them and the misconceptions related to geometry. Also, whether or not the students use their mathematics knowledge or daily life experiences while solving geometry questions are the main questions for this study. Purpose Statement The purpose of this study is to assess and describe students geometric thinking. Particularly, its purpose is to explain how the students approach to three-dimensional geometry, how they solve the questions related to three-dimensional geometry, what kind of solution strategies they develop, and what kind of difficulties they are confronted with when they are solving three-dimensional geometry problems. Also, the other purpose is to analyze how students associate their mathematics knowledge and daily life experience with geometry. The study attempt to answer the following questions: How do 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th grade elementary students solve the questions related to three-dimensional geometry problems? What kind of solution strategies do 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th elementary students develop in order to solve three-dimensional geometry problems? What kind of difficulties do 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th elementary students face with while they are solving three-dimensional geometry problems? How do 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th elementary students associate their mathematics knowledge and daily life experience with geometry problems? Rationale Most of the countries have changed their educational program in order to make learning be more meaningful (NCTM, 2000; MEB, 2006). The development of Turkish curriculum from 2003 to up till now can be assessed the part of the international educational reform. Particularly, the aim of the changes in elementary mathematics education is to make the students give meaning to learning by concretizing in their mind and to make the learning be more meaningful (MEB, 2006). In order to make learning more meaningful, knowing how the students think is critically important. For this reason, this study will investigate students mathematical thinking especially geometrical thinking since geometry provides opportunity to encourage students mathematical thinking (NCTM,2006). The result of the international exams such as Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and national exams Secondary School Entrance Exam â€Å"Ortaà ¶Ãƒâ€žÃ… ¸retim KurumlarÄ ± Ãâ€"ÄÅ ¸renci Seà §me SÄ ±navÄ ± (OKS)† show that the success of Turkish students in mathematics and especially in geometry is too low. Ministry of National Education in Turkey stated that although international average is 487 at TIMSS-1999, Turkish students mathematics average is 429. Moreover, they are 31st country among 38 countries. When the sub topics are analyzed, geometry has least average (EARGED, 2003). The similar result can be seen the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). According to result of PISA-2003, Turkish students are 28th county among 40 countries and Turkish students mathematics average is 423 but the international average is 489. When geometry average is co nsidered, it is not different from the result of TIMSS-1999 since international geometry average is 486 but the average of Turkey is 417 ((EARGED, 2005). As it can be realized from result of both TIMSS-1999 and PISA-2003, Turkish students average is significantly lower than the international average. Since in order to get higher mathematical performance, being aware of childrens mathematical thinking has crucial role (Fennema, Carpenter, Franke, Levi, Jacobs, Empson, 1996). For this reason, knowing students geometric thinking, their solution strategies and their difficulties related to geometry problems will help to explore some of the reasons of Turkish students low geometry performance in international assessment, Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), and in national assessment, Secondary School Entrance Exam â€Å"Ortaà ¶Ãƒâ€žÃ… ¸retim KurumlarÄ ± Ãâ€"ÄÅ ¸renci Seà §me SÄ ±navÄ ± (OKS).† As a result, when geometry and being aware of students problems solving strategies and their difficulties when they are solving geometry problems has important roles on mathematics achievement are taken into consideration, studies related to geometry and students geometric thinking are needed. Besides, Turkish students performance in international assessments is considered; it is not difficult to realize that there should be more studies related to geometry. For these reasons, the study will assist in Turkish education literature. Significance of the Study Teachers knowledge about childrens mathematical thinking effect their instructional method. They teach the subjects in the way of childrens thinking and they encourage students to think over the problems and to develop solution strategies. With such instructional method, classes are more successful (Fennema, Carpenter, Franke, 1992). Geometry is one of the sub topic of mathematics (MEB,2006) and it has crucial role in representing and solving problems in other sub topics of mathematics. Besides, geometry has important contribution to develop childrens mathematical thinking. On the other hand, in order to understand geometry, spatial ability is useful tool (NCTM, 2000). Battista et al.(1998), Fennema and Tartre (1985) and Moses (1977) emphasized that there is a relationship between spatial ability and achievement in geometry. Moreover, mathematical thinking and mathematical ability is positively correlated with spatial thinking (Anderson 2000). Since geometry, spatial ability and mathematical thinking are positively correlated, being successful in geometry will get higher mathematics achievement. To increase geometry achievement, the teachers should know students geometric thinking. Particularly, how students solve problems, what kind of strategies they develop, and what kind of difficulties they face with while t hey are solving the problems are important concepts in order to get idea about students thinking (Fennema, Carpenter, Franke, 1992). With this study, the teachers will be informed how children think while they are solving geometry problems especially three-dimensional geometry problems, what kind of strategies they develop to solve them, what kind of difficulties they face with related to geometry problems. Furthermore, university instructors will benefit from this study to have knowledge about childrens geometric thinking and this knowledge may be valuable for them. Since they may inform pre-service teachers about childrens thinking and the importance of knowing childrens thinking while making instructional decisions. As a result, knowing students geometric thinking will benefit to increase their geometry achievement and also mathematical achievement, and consequently, this will help to raise the Turkish students success of the international exams CHAPTER 2 Literature Review Geometry can be considered as the part of mathematics and it provides opportunities to encourage students mathematical thinking. Also, geometry offers students an aspect of mathematical thinking since when students engage in geometry, they become familiar with shape, location and transformation, and they also understand other mathematics topics (NCTM, 2000). Therefore, understanding of students geometrical thinking, their geometry problem solving strategies and their difficulties in geometry become the base for their mathematical thinking. Also, since geometry is â€Å"a science of space as well as logical structure†, to understand students geometrical thinking requires knowledge of spatial ability and cognitive ability (NCTM, 1989, p.48). This chapter deals with some of the literature in four areas related to the problem of this study. The first section of this chapter is related to the van Hiele theory since van Hiele theory explains the level of childrens geometrical thinking (van Hiele, 1986). The second section of this chapter deals with the research studies related to students mathematical and geometrical thinking. The third section is devoted to research studies related to spatial ability. And the last section of this chapter reviews the research related to relationship between spatial ability and mathematics achievement. Section 1: The van Hiele Theory The van Hiele theory is related to childrens thinking especially their geometrical thinking since the theory categorizes childrens geometrical thinking in a hierarchical structure (van Hiele, 1986). According to theory of Pierre and Diana van Hiele, students learn the geometry subjects through levels of thought and they stated that the van Hiele Theory provided instructional direction to the learning and teaching of geometry. The van Hiele model has five hierarchical sequences. Van Hiele stated that each level has its own language because in each level, the connection of the terms, definitions, logic and symbol are different. The first level is visual level (level 0) (van Hiele, 1986). In this level, children recognize the figures according to their appearance. They might distinguish one figure to another but they do not consider the geometric properties of the figures. For instance, they do not consider the rectangle as a type of a parallelogram. The second level is descriptive leve l (level 1). In this level, students recognize the shapes by their properties. For instance, a student might think of a square which has four equal sides, four equal angles and equal diagonals. But they can not make relationships between these properties. For example, they can not grasp that equal diagonal can be deduced from equal sides and equal angles. The third level is theoretical level (level 3). The students can recognize the relationship between the figures and the properties. They discover properties of various shapes. For instance, some of the properties of the square satisfy the definition of the rectangle and they conclude that every square is a rectangle. The fourth level is formal logic level (level 4). The students realize the differences between axioms, definitions and theorems. Also, they prove the theorems and make relationships between the theorems. The fifth level is rigor level (level 4). In this level, students establish the theorems in different postulation sy stems (Fuys, Geddes, Tischler, 1988). As a result, the levels give information about students geometric thinking to the researchers and mathematics teachers. Mathematics teachers may guess whether the geometry problem will be solved by students or not and at which grade they will solve them. Section 2: Children thinking The van Hiele theory explains the students thinking level in geometry. The levels are important but how students think is as important as their thinking level. To ascertain how students think related to mathematics and especially geometry, a number of studies have been conducted (Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, 1996; Chang, 1992; Battista, Clements, 1995; Ãâ€"zbellek, 2003; Olkun, 2005; Ng, 1998; Okur, 2006). Some of these studies are related to mathematical thinking and some of them geometrical thinking. Carpenter et al. (1999) and Olkun (2005) studied childrens mathematical thinking and Chang (1992), Battista and Clements (1995), Ben-Chaim (1985), Olkun (2001), Ãâ€"zbellek (2003), Okur (2006) and Ng, (1998) carried out research studies related to childrens geometrical thinking. An important study related to mathematical thinking has been conduct by Carpenter, Fennema and Franke initiated over 15 years ago in USA and the name of this study is Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) which is described as the teacher development program. Cognitively Guided Instruction sought to bring together research on the development of childrens mathematical thinking and research on teaching (Franke, Kazemi, 2001). Carpenter, Fennema and Franke (1996) stated that Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) focuses on childrens understanding of specific mathematical concepts which provide a basis for teachers to develop their knowledge more broadly. The Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI) Professional Development Program engages teachers in learning about the development of childrens mathematical thinking within particular content domains. (Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi, Empson, 1999). These content domains include investigation of childrens thinking at different problem situat ions that characterize addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (Fennema, Carpenter, Franke, 1992). In order to understand how the children categorize the problems, Carpenter et al. (1992) conducted a study. According to this study, Fennema, Carpenter, and Franke (1996) portrayed how basic concepts of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division develop in children and how they can construct concepts of place value and multidigit computational procedures based on their intuitive mathematical knowledge. At the end of this study, with the help of childrens actions and relations in the problem, for addition and subtraction, four basic classes of problems can be identified: Join Separate, Part-Part-Whole, and Compare and Carpenter et all. (1999) reported that according to these problem types, children develop different strategies to solve them. The similar study has been carried out by Olkun et al (2005) in Turkey. The purpose of these two studies is the same but the s ubjects and the grade level are different. Olkun et al (2005) studied with the students from kindergarten to 5th grade but the students who participated in Carpenters study is from kindergarten through 3rd grade (Fennema, Carpenter, Franke, 1992). Furthermore, CGI is related to concepts addition, subtraction, multiplication and division but the content of the study done in Turkey is addition, multiplication, number and geometrical concepts (Olkun et al, 2005). Although the grade level and the subjects were different, for the same subjects, addition and multiplication, the solution strategies of the students in Olkuns study are almost the same as the students in CGI. But the students in the study of Carpenter used wider variety of strategies than the students in Turkey even if they are smaller than the students who participated in Olkuns study. This means that grade level or age is not important for developing problem solving strategies. On the other hand, there are some studies related to childrens geometrical thinking which are interested in different side of geometrical thinking. Ng (1998) had conducted a study related to students understanding in area and volume. There were seven participants at grade 4 and 5. For the study, she interviewed with all participants one by one and she presented her dialogues with students while they are solving the questions. She reported that students who participated in the study voluntarily have different understanding level for the concepts of area, and volume. She explained that when students pass from one level to another, 4th grade to 5th grade, their thinking becomes more integrated. With regard to its methodology and its geometry questions, it is valuable for my study. On the contrary to Ng, Chang (1992) chose his participants at different levels of thinking in three-dimensional geometry. These levels were determined by the Spatial Geometry test. According to this study, students at lower levels of thinking use more manipulative and less definitions and theorems to solve the problems than high level of thinking. On the other hand, the levels of two-dimensional geometry identified by the van Hiele theory. The results were the same as the three-dimensional geometry. In this case, Chang (1992) stated that the students at the lower levels of thinking request more apparatus and less definitions and theorems to solve the problems. Moreover, for both cases, the students at the higher levels of thinking want manipulative at the later times in the problem-solving process than the students at the lower level of students. The result of this study indicated that using manipulative require higher level of thinking. By providing necessary manipulative, I hope th e students use higher level of thinking and solve the problems with different strategy. Besides of these studies, Ben-Chaim et all. (1985) carried out the study to investigate errors in the three-dimensional geometry. They reported four types of errors on the problem related to determining the volume of the three-dimensional objects which are composed of the cubes. Particularly, they categorize these errors two major types which students made. These major types of errors defined as â€Å"dealing with two dimensional rather than three and not counting hidden cubes† (Ben-Chaim, 1985). The similar study was conducted by Olkun (2001). The aim of this study is to explain students difficulties which they faced with calculating the volume of the solids. He concluded that while students were finding the volume of the rectangular solids with the help of the unit cubes, most of the students were forced open to find the number of the unit cubes in the rectangular solids. Also, the students found the big prism complicated and they were forced open to give life to the organiz ation of the prism which was formed by the unit cubes based on the column, line and layers in their mind, i.e. they got stuck on to imagine the prism readily. (Olkun, 2001). The categorization of students difficulties will be base for me to analyze difficulties related to geometry problems of the students who are participant of my study. Besides of these studies, Battista and Clements (1996) conducted a study to understand students solution strategies and errors in the three-dimensional problems. The study of Battista and Clements (1996) was different from the study of Ben-Chaim (1985) and Olkun (2001) in some respect such as Battista and Clements categorized problem solving strategies but Ben-Chaim and Olkun defined students difficulties while reaching correct answer. Categorization of the students problem solving strategies in the study of Battista and Clements (1996) is like the following: â€Å"Category A: The students conceptualized the set of cubes as a 3-D rectangular array organized into layers. Category B: The students conceptualized the set of cubes as space filling, attempting to count all cubes in the interior and exterior. Category C: The students conceptualized the set of cubes in terms of its faces; he or she counted all or a subset of the visible faces of cubes. Category D: The students explicitly used the formula L x W x H, but with no indication that he or she understood the formula in terms of layers. Category E: Other. This category includes strategies such as multiplying the number of squares on one face times the number on other face.† (Battista Clements ,1996). At another study of Battista and Clements (1998), their categorization was nearly the same but their names were different than the study which has done in 1996. In this study, they categorized the strategies as seeing buildings as unstructured sets of cubes, seeing buildings as unstructured sets of cubes, seeing buildings as space filling, seeing buildings in terms of layer and use of formula. Battista and Clements (1996, 1998) concluded that spatial structuring is basic concept to understand students strategies for calculating the volume of the objects which are formed by the cubes. Students should establish the units, establish relationships between units and comprehend the relationship as a subset of the objects. Actually, these studies are important for my study since they gave some ideas about different solutions for solving these problems. Also, different categorization of students geometry problems strategies will help me about how I can categorize students strategies. Also, In addition to these studies, Seà §il (2000), Olkun (2001), Olkun, Toluk (2004), Ãâ€"zbellek (2003) and Okur (2006) have been conducted studies in Turkey. Seà §il (2000) has investigated students problem solving strategies in geometry and Okur (2006) have studied the reason of failure in geometry and ways of solution. In the study of Ãâ€"zbellek, the misconceptions and missing understandings of the students related to the subject angles at grade 6 and 7. Also, studies has been done to investigate the difficulties of students related to calculating the volume of solids which are formed by the unit cubes (Olkun, 2001) and the effects of using materials on students geometric thinking (Olkun Toluk, 2004). As a result, in order to understand children thinking, several studies has been conducted. Some of them were related to children mathematical thinking and some of them were interested in childrens geometrical thinking. These studies dealt with childrens thinking in different aspects and so their findings are not related to each other. But the common idea is that spatial ability and geometrical thinking are correlated positively. Since spatial reasoning is intellectual operation to construct an organization or form for objects and it has important role to for constructing students geometric knowledge (Battista, 1998). Section 3: Spatial Ability The USA National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000)explained that the spatial ability is useful tool to interpret, understand and appreciate our geometric world and it is logically related to mathematics (FennemaTartre, 1985). On the other hand, McGee (1979) describes spatial ability as â€Å"the ability to mentally manipulate, rotate, twist or invert a pictorially presented stimulus object†. Since spatial ability is important for childrens geometric thinking, the development of it has been investigated by several studies. First and foremost study has been carried by Pia